American Thought “Puritanism: A Social & Historical Background

A.   Introduction

When it comes to the promising land, America says it all. People have their own motivation to immigrate to America. Stevenson states:
"Major changes in the pattern of immigration have been caused by wars, revolutions, periods of starvation, persecutions, religious intolerance, and in short, by any number of disasters which led people to believe that America was a better place to be." (1998:23)

In 1830s U.S. newcomers began to increase about 600.000 visitors. He added that more than a million Irish moved to America between 1846 and 1851 to escape starvation and disease in Ireland. However, American civilization was initiated by 13 colonies. These Britain-colonies encompassed Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, New York, Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, North Carolina, Georgia, South Carolina, Massachusetts, and Virginia.

Looking back history people had a journey to the new land to get a better life. The hopeful settlers may think that their utopian dream lies somewhere on that promising land. The Puritans in particular once had made a big choice ever. It was said that many puritans suffered from persecutions because of their belief, one of well-known events was Bloody Mary. The story continues as the puritans finally made decision to travel to a land where the air of freedom can be achieved—America.

picture taken from endtimepilgrim.org
Puritanism is not only a religious belief but also a philosophy and a value of life about what should do and what shouldn’t, about what is good and what is not. It has greatly contributed to American Culture, American Thought, and American national character. This protestant movement originated and developed from England but the influence crossed over borders. This essay will elaborate more about this belief socially and historically as it has big contribution in a foundation of America today and as it may become additional information in the field of American Studies.

B.   Discussion
The experience of sorrow in the old days has led to Luther’s reformation who was believed initiating the movement toward what they believed to be corrupted-rules committed in a Church of England around 16th to 17th century after the accession of Elizabeth I. Puritans are English Protestant who thought that Church of England need to be reformed. Most Puritans were "non-separating Puritans" which means they did not try to separate or make distinct congregations from the Church of England and the rests were "separating Puritans" or separatist which separated themselves and made distinct congregations outside the Church, later called as pilgrim. (Wikipedia: History of the Puritans in North America). But in practice, non-separating Puritans acted as the separatists did. (Puritanism - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com.htm)
As a religious view, Puritanism has beliefs, such as:
         A. Godly people were sober, hardworking, and responsible. English society had been corrupted by foreign influences and needed to be purified.
            B. Catholicism made the religion weaker
           C. Believe in destiny and fate – God chooses who is saved and who is damned. Yet the saints are responsible for their actions.
            D. The saints can choose its members, hires and fires its ministers.
            E. Worship should focus on God, No instrumental music, or art.
            F. Much value of education
            G. Intolerance – error must be opposed and driven out.
(Feldmeth, Greg D. “American Puritanism,” U.S. History Resources. http://gfeldmeth/USHistory.html/lec.pur.html)

This religious movement, as explained earlier, aimed at purifying their national church by eliminating every Catholic influence. Puritans attempted to change an Episcopal state system—in which bishop and king were the authorities (leader) of church governance—into Presbyterian in which the highest position was the presbyters or the elders. They assumed that the concept of a King who governed the church system was an annexation between church authorities and politics. Puritans argued that worship should focus more on God instead of playing music instruments and creating arts. All intolerance must be wiped out.

When King James I was on the throne in 1603, English Puritanism asked him to abolish the bishops. But somehow, the King James refused it. Moreover, the English Government dominated by Church and religious people became more repressive. They controlled everything, forced everyone to do exactly what they wanted. It was bloody affairs. The previous persecution of religion under Queen Mary reign was much more horrific. The English people came to call her "Bloody Mary". At Coventry Cathedral evangelical families were rounded up. They were tied and sentenced by Church bishops. English fathers were burned alive for teaching their children the Lord's Prayer in English. The religious priest believed that Latin, pagan language in Rome, was the only language in which Christian worship could be properly conducted. (PURITAN HISTORY, PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE.htm) They treated Puritans unfairly and cruel, so the Puritans had to move to somewhere outside England or in New world, America.

Geographically Puritanism developed in North America as it was their first settlement in America. In 1620, Puritans reached North America and they firstly settled in Plymouth, New England. Decade later, the Puritans migrated to Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Maine, Rhode Island and New Haven. New England itself is believed to be the “new” place and named after previous land puritans once lived, England. Puritanism was the dominant religious in that area in the 17th and 18th centuries until the second wave immigration.

During the settlement Puritans has proved promoting ideology that greatly gives impact toward others. Bathoro (1998) in Ambivalensi Pikiran Nathaniel Hawthorne dalam The Scarlet Letter Puritans are group who brought positive impact. Puritans are “zeal” having high spirit in religion because they believe in doctrines of election—God chooses few to serve sacred duties. In New England they preached not only to colonies but also Indians. John Eliot is a figure who had successfully accomplished this mission as he was called as “Apostle to the Indians”. Puritans are typically hard working as many of them assume that working is a sign of salvation. It is a calling from God. Puritans obey rules. According to them Church is a group of chosen people coming together to take an oath to serve God. So that is why every rule is associated with religion affairs.

According to Feldmeth in the beginning of discussion, Puritanism “Much value of education” and “Believe in destiny and fate – God chooses who is saved and who is damned. Yet the saints are responsible for their actions”.

Puritanism value says ‘Much value of education’. Learning activity was centered from Bible. They learned and understand Bible, then preached out to the others to save people (preaching Indians). In 1635 the Puritans began to establish public school for the first time named Roxbury Latin School, which their mission to educate people based on Christian value. Four years later, they established Harvard College. As result, area which settled by Puritans, New England in particular had the least number of illiteracy compared to other areas.

Next value is “believe in destiny and fate”. Puritanism was first formed by saints. They were chosen by God, and by God they could move to the ‘land of Hope’ or North America. Puritanism believed in “Nation under God”. They (New England Puritans) felt like they had similarity with the Israel nation, like in the Old Testament. They prevented from monarchy oppression, worshiped the same god, and suffered from religion they believed. The movement of puritan from England to America is more like an Exodus in the bible.  They believed it was a God’s will and they even considered that America was a new version of Jerusalem, a promised land, for the chosen one. Puritan ideology is one of legacies for American today. Even they were not only religion reformists but also revolutionists as they were member of thirteen colonies who fought for their right and reached independence.

C.   Conclusion
Puritanism is not only a religious belief but also a philosophy and a value of life that has greatly contributed to American Culture, American Thought, and American national character. This legacy has never been away from its social historical aspect. The intention of puritans to purify the Church of England from Catholic influence had led to social confrontation and ended up in persecutions. Being treated unfair they decided to move out from England to the promising land, America. Geographically Puritanism developed in mostly New England, North America, because it was their first settlement in America. In their settlement they promoted like high spirit in religion, self-determination, education, hard work, and obedient in rule and law as they believed in themselves that they were the chosen ones and under “Nation under God” and taking part of the thirteen colonies who finally brought America to its independence.

References:
Bathoro. 1998. Ambivalensi Pikiran Nathaniel Hawthorne dalam The Scarlet Letter. UNS PRESS: Unpublished Material.
http://www.gkri-exodus.org/image-upload/HIS 07 Sejarah Reformasi 7.pdf
http://assaugm.wordpress.com/2010/10/10/amerika-sebuah-peradaban-dan-perubahan/
http://www.ushistoryscene.com/uncategorized/riseofpubliceducation/
http://www.endtimepilgrim.com/ PURITAN HISTORY, PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE.htm
http://gfeldmeth/USHistory.html/lec.pur.html
http://history.com/ Puritanism - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/History­_of_ the_ Puritans_ in_ North_ America
Stevenson, Douglas K. 1998. American Life and Institutions Revised Edition. Washington DC: FPG International LLC

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Cultural Studies: Transnationality, Globalization, and Postcoloniality


INTRODUCTION
As Hanna Musiol says in A Cultural Studies: A Practical Introduction culture is practically shaped and shared by citizen in a nation-states which looks more or less homogenous, as she concludes that it is a national culture. In a loose understanding culture is defined within country's border with a little outside influence. 
For example, Korea, Japan, and China in many respects are different because it is undeniable that culture back then might be formed by geographical site. There is an inseparable interaction between human culture and their environment because environment nowadays still does affect to cultural practices in communities and later they turn to shape and reshape physical environment nearby.
Nevertheless Hanna points out that culture as a national trait become more or less an eighties or old-fashioned way of thinking. Korea, Japan, and China from historical issue somehow shares the same origin letter used for written communication with so called Hànzì, although afterward they will pronounce it Kanji in Japan and Hanja in Korea. She stresses out that many cultural nationalists ignore or reject about transnational dimension in culture practice and production and diversity of culture within one country. In other words, instead of sticking to each country’s unique ethnic and cultural character to one another, they in fact will share many cultural traits with their neighbor as this phenomenon is popularly known as transnationality. It is said that national culture can be influenced by the spread of globalization that has roots in colonial history and the era afterwards. Transnationality, globalization, and postcoloniality are interconnected and this discussion is all about. Hanna concerns on those three as they seemly contribute to produce a culture and they have their own approach to cultural studies. 
DISCUSSION
           





As said before in the introduction that transnationality and globalization and postcoloniality are interconnected phenomena and processes. According to Thomas Faist article: From Heterogeneties to Social (In)equalities, in the Debating Multiculturalism in the Nordic Welfare States; transnationality means that some agents are characterized by relatively dense and continuous cross-border transactions. It is not a new phenomenon that recent local culture have long been influenced and shaped by other cultures, the process increased by transnational movement of people through the migration, cultural products proliferation, and commodities distribution. As Noreene Janus said in the article Cloning the Consumer Culture that “transnational culture is a direct outcome of the internationalization of production and accumulation promoted through standardized development models and cultural forms”. That means that we can see American television program from our TV cable without need to go to America, since television has been going through a process of transnationalization. People can purchase international clothing brand through e-Bay, Supermarket, or Mall, even they can consume Sushi the original food from Japan at restaurant in Indonesia.
            The internationality that shapes people behavior and social culture takes the role on the increasing consumption of products and services from outside their origin country, this consumptive behavior is the main point of globalization. Globalization may lead to transnational phenomenon. The distribution of products and services globally to increasingly various local markets requires international brands to localize their products. So, international companies builds transnational needs and to sell them. Globalization strategies include the cross-border acquisition of brands to develop transnational brand portfolios divided into global and regional lines. The developments of communication (radio and TV) and social networking (Facebook and Twitter) technologies, in early of the twentieth century have improved communication over large distances, across national and physical borders. Globalization provokes complex interconnections across the world. People move across borders, capital travels across cities and nations, media exchanges are interlinked across the globe, cultures have acquired a mobility that brings about new “civilization of clashes” and struggles between people.
It is said that in cultural studies is that most of the global frameworks that regulate the flow of capital, goods, technology, and information also have roots in colonial history. In practice, the colonial systems concern in exploitation of economy and oppression of culture. If colonialism and globalization impose ideology of civilization, postcolonial studies more on the effects suffered by colonized people instead of the end of colonialism. Ryan and Musiol, referring to cultural studies, say that postcolonial study constitutes another ways of knowing how cultural exclusion lingers an effect on culture worldwide. For instance in US they describe how African Americans still endure difficulties to get acknowledged as their cultural products—writing, music, and visual art were not recognized as national culture in US in the beginning of twentieth century. In addition Ryan and Musiol give an example how oppression of African women still happens—by French middle-class people, reflected in French movie.
As response to the experience of colonization transnational cultural studies focuses on the way media form national cultures. Many national cultures have been in a state of nationalistic in their cultural policies. This was done by regulating the media and limiting foreign content and foreign private company access. Because of globalization a new media such as satellite television has come with its content promotes something new that is different from the local national culture. And this what Ryan and Musiol say about the culture of “modernity”. Many people around the globe share the same sense of what a “modern” lifestyle is happening then.
  
CONCLUSION

Globalization that is caused by postcoloniality has created complex culture across the world. First of all, as Ryan and Musiol said that colonial idea refers to the global frameworks which dominate capitalism power, technology, and information that flow around the world. Postcolonialism as the impact of the colonial power is connected to the rise of modernity. The impact of dominant power and oppression of culture, politic, and economic in the colonial era results in the globalization. The main globalization strategy, cross-border market acquisition, effects in the global market that increasingly flow to the social-culture of people in many countries. The globalization’s structure shapes the transnationality phenomenon—through the technology, information, and commodity that goes around and build the culture of “modernity”. People move across borders, products distribution across cities and nations, media exchanges are linked around the world. Since, cultures have acquired a mobility that brings about new “civilization of clashes” (Appadurai, 2006, p.16). As the conclusion, transnationality, globalization, and postcoloniality are interconnected and linked in important ways.
SOURCES

Janus, Noreene. Cloning the Consumer Culture. n.d., accessed from http://www.medialit.org/reading-room/cloning-consumer-culture (June 9, 2014)
Peter, Kivisto and Osten Wahlbeck, editor. Debating Multiculturalism in the Nordic Welfare States. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2013
Ryan, Michael, Brett Ingram, and Hanna Musiol. Cultural Studies, A Practical Introduction. Singapore: Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited. 2010
           


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Simon During's Sight to Media, Identity, and Gender & Sexuality

Summary of Cultural Studies: A Critical Introduction by Simon During

This is a reflective essay about cultural studies in a book by Simon During entitled Cultural Studies: A Critical Introduction. This time I will further give a brief explanation on my understanding how Simon During views Media and Public Sphere, Identity, and Gender & Sexuality.


Media and the Public Sphere
Simon During categorizes media that culturally evoke society, including Television, popular music, and internet and techno-culture. He contends that TV has special relation to cultural studies as it potentially shapes culture. It is pointed that TV potentially displays more pop culture as the content that according to my perception from his point a view will pose and produce cultural products that will be consumed by many—if it high cultural product it will turn to devaluation of its value.
In relation to cultural studies some concern on its impacts for instance some researchers examine how viewers as public sphere judge the TV programs, some considers on how it is related to social like whether TV will draw people together or isolate them. Some say it draws audience to be consumers. It leads children to toy manufacturer, leads teenage to bookstore or café, and lead adult to music recording or cinema.
In music we are led to understand that music contributes to youth culture. Popular music is generated by several background issues of gender, ethnicity, race, and sexuality. Music also contributes to germinate the concept of subculture in which some of their routines are commodified, like behavior and fashion. For instance I study on Metal Music by Skid Row songs; I may learn how at that time youth were fighting for identities through their behavior, and identities agains the X generation.
In terms of internet, people indirectly have created a techno-culture. Along with its super function of fast access to collect information the advent of World Wide Web transforms and contributes the structure socially and culturally.  
Identity
Identity marks individuals. Either represented or constructed identity maybe recognized through gender, race or ethnicity, and class.  Identities can be also seen from other traits like profession, socio-economic status, nationality, and region. In the book it has been mentioned that actually individuals have more than one identity. They have identities. Individual alone may have identity in terms of psychology but individual in certain group may be called as cultural identity. The writer points out a lot concerning on identity politics as it is probably believed that cultural study has embraced the most. Identity politics may refer to the desire for access, liberty, unprejudiced treatment.
Cultural studies is regarded as medium that sets identity politics into academic discourse in which it focuses on subordinated and marginal concerns and identities as form of constraint as part of social structure. Some identities are marginalized and demonized by the most powerful group in society so we can say that identity itself refers to the position of individuals as a group in social in which usually certain group who has powerful dominance can create insult to the subordinated one—say White’s dominance over black community.
The land of immigrant, the salad bowl, the melting pot, or other metaphors construct United States of America as a the most seen country which has been established its identity because of its multiculturalism. As briefly discussed above who doesn’t know white’s dominance over black community? How black community resist toward racism may have gone for decades. And it is such a comic how white make fun of fat lips of black people while on the way to school, pub, or home they listen to Eminem or hip-hop or RnB which literally origin by black community. This multiculturalism and race cases probably says it all as cultural studies embraces in learning cultural identities in which some identities are raising to be recognized.
Feminism and Queer Movement
In Culture Studies: A Critical Introduction Feminism movement in early time has a distinct visions; equality of rights and opportunities, end of male domination, and unfolding of a woman’s culture. Back then the first modern feminist argument was introduced by Mary Wollstonecraft who practiced an Enlightenment account of human nature and Enlightenment principles of justice and equality to gender divisions. It was said that the new industrial and professional workplaces, male solidarity and violence, along with the ideology of civil reform, marginalized the kind of feminism that Wollstonecraft had represented. Virginia Woolf stated that women position is subordinated; they do not have freedom because they do not have access to property that has been dominated by men.
Perception of gender equality in the past was based on men’s domination over women. But then Simon During shares that these days in the west women are not subordinated and discriminated as they once were. Most nations have legalized abortion and maternity leave. Sanctions against sexual harassment turn into routine. Feminism has all but withered at the same time. The movement tore itself apart. This movement actually is not about academic movement even it popularizes and leads women into university. It is stated that women’s studies has been slowly established since nineties feminism’s loss of steam and the backlash against it, women studies has been transform into gender studies.
Simon During puts equally queers movement (known as LGBT community) along with feminism as ones who culturally give a big impact towards society especially Western countries in the late twentieth century. He might draw this to conclusion on acceptance issue in which this case gay people scream to. On 27 June 1969 Stonewalls Riots broke in New York where the police raided the gay hang-out place in which The LGBT community fought back. The rally of gay and militant of group—based on feminist radicals, followed afterward. It is said that the gay movement political program require two aspects to pursue; the repeal of laws criminalizing same-sex acts and the admission of full civic rights to self identified gays. Cultural studies in here seems studying on how this community has been fighting for their right, for opportunity to embrace the same value, and possibly for their want to be regarded as “normal” as other citizens.

Source:
During, Simon. 2005. Cultural Studies: A Critical Introduction. Routledge: New York
 


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Adapted from American identity slogan "A Salad Bowl" This blog contains various moments that The M-Stylist shares. It's me, M-Stylist -Moments Stylist. Sorry if the name is pretty lame and freak. But I love to be Freak! it's like my middle name *ups

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